Cheese is essentially a concentrated milk, so many of the health advantages and disadvantages of milk apply to cheese. It is a rich source of protein, calcium, and energy. The main health concern derives from its high saturated fat content. However, eating cheese as part of a balanced diet is compatible with good health.
Food poisoning
People are often concerned about consuming cheeses made from raw and unpasteurized milk. Cheeses made from unpasteurized milk are required to be aged at least 60 days by law in the US. This requirement extends to imports as well. Cheese in general present a relatively low risk of food poisoning. Soft cheese has the greatest potential for growing pathogens, so even pasteurized versions should be avoided by people vulnerable to infection such as pregnant women, the elderly, and the chronically ill. Hard cheeses are inhospitable to disease microbes and seldom cause food poisoning.
Foreign molds such as Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium viridicatum, and P. cyclopium occasionally develop on the rinds and contaminate the cheese. Though this problem is rare, it is best to discard the cheese in its entirety.
Some people are sensitive to amines present in strongly ripened cheese. Histamine and tyramine are found in large quantities in Cheddar, blue, Swiss, and Dutch-style cheeses. Sensitive people may suffer a rise in blood pressure, headaches, and rashes.
Tooth decay
Eating cheese slows tooth decay. It appears that when cheese is eaten at the end of a meal, the calcium and phosphate from the cheese blunt the acid rise of bacteria that adhere to teeth, thus preventing tooth decay.
Monday, May 28, 2012
Process cheese and Low-fat cheese
Process cheese is an industrial version of cheese that makes use of surplus, scrap, and unripened materials. It requires the use of "melting salts" to make it fondue-like. In 1917, Kraft patented a combination of citric acid and phosphates, and a decade later presented the cheddar look-alike Velveeta to the market.
Melting salts are mixtures of sodium citrate, sodium phosphates, and sodium polyphosphates. These salts are mixed with a blend of new, partly ripened, and fully ripened cheeses. The salts loosen the protein matrix and melt the component cheeses into a homogenous mass. The characteristics and low-cost of process cheese have made it a popular ingredient in fast-food sandwiches.
Low- and no-fat "cheese" products replace fat with various carbohydrates and proteins. These products do not melt. They soften and dry out.
Melting salts are mixtures of sodium citrate, sodium phosphates, and sodium polyphosphates. These salts are mixed with a blend of new, partly ripened, and fully ripened cheeses. The salts loosen the protein matrix and melt the component cheeses into a homogenous mass. The characteristics and low-cost of process cheese have made it a popular ingredient in fast-food sandwiches.
Low- and no-fat "cheese" products replace fat with various carbohydrates and proteins. These products do not melt. They soften and dry out.
Cooking with cheese
Melting cheese
At around 90°F, the milk fat melts, cheese becomes more supple, and fat beads on the surface. At higher temperatures, around 130°F/55°F for soft cheeses, 150°F/65°C for Cheddar and Swiss types, 180°F/82°C for Parmesan and pecorino, bonds holding the casein proteins together begin to break and the protein matrix collapses. Melted cheese flows as thick liquid. The moisture content dictates the melting behavior of cheese. Low moisture cheeses are more concentrated and intimately bonded, therefore, they require more enegry to melt. After continued heat, moisture evaporates and melted cheese resolidifies.
There are several cheeses that do not melt. They just get stiffer and drier. Examples include Indian paneer, Latin queso blanco, Italian ricotta, and most fresh goat cheeses. All of them are curdled primarily by acid, not rennet. Acid dissolves the calcium glue that hold casein proteins together in micelles along with the negative electrical charge. The proteins bond extensively, so when heated, water is lost first before the protein bonds break. As water boils away, the proteins become even more concentrated. Firm paneer and queso blanco can be simmered or fried like meat.
Stringiness
Melted cheese becomes stringy when mostly intact casein molecules are cross-linked together by calcium into long, fibers that can stretch. If, however, casein has been attacked extensively by enzymes, then the pieces are too small to form fibers, as is the case with well aged cheeses. These do not get stringy. The degree of cross linking is such that casein molecules are tightly bound. The molecules just break.
Stringiness, can be determined by how the cheese was made. Stringy cheeses are moderate in acidity, moisture, salt, and age. They are intentionally made fibrous, as is the case with mozzarella, Emmental, and Cheddar. Crumbly cheeses include Cheshire and Leicester. Caefphilly, Colby, and Jack are preferred for melted preparations. Gruyère is the choice for fondues. Italian grating cheeses, such as Parmesan, grana Padano, and pecorinos have a broken protein fabric which makes them ideal to be disperced in dishes.
When preparing cheese sauces and soups, the aim is to integrate the cheese evenly in the liquid to add richness and flavor to the dish. To avoid stringiness, lumps, and fat separation consider the following tips:
Cheese fondue
The ingredients for fondue include an alpine cheese such as Gruyère, a tart white wine, some kirsch, and sometimes starch (for added insurance). The wine contributes water, which keeps the casein proteins moist and dilute, and tartaric acid, which pulls off the calcium and leaves casein glueless and separate. Citric acid from a lemon juice does the same thing.
When using cheese as a topping or gratin, keep in mind that too much heat dehydrates the casein fabric, toughens it, and causes the fat to separate. To avoid this, watch the dish carefully when under the broiler or in the oven, and remove as soon as the cheese melts. If you want to brown a cheese topping, pick a robust cheese such as a grating cheese.
At around 90°F, the milk fat melts, cheese becomes more supple, and fat beads on the surface. At higher temperatures, around 130°F/55°F for soft cheeses, 150°F/65°C for Cheddar and Swiss types, 180°F/82°C for Parmesan and pecorino, bonds holding the casein proteins together begin to break and the protein matrix collapses. Melted cheese flows as thick liquid. The moisture content dictates the melting behavior of cheese. Low moisture cheeses are more concentrated and intimately bonded, therefore, they require more enegry to melt. After continued heat, moisture evaporates and melted cheese resolidifies.
There are several cheeses that do not melt. They just get stiffer and drier. Examples include Indian paneer, Latin queso blanco, Italian ricotta, and most fresh goat cheeses. All of them are curdled primarily by acid, not rennet. Acid dissolves the calcium glue that hold casein proteins together in micelles along with the negative electrical charge. The proteins bond extensively, so when heated, water is lost first before the protein bonds break. As water boils away, the proteins become even more concentrated. Firm paneer and queso blanco can be simmered or fried like meat.
Stringiness
Melted cheese becomes stringy when mostly intact casein molecules are cross-linked together by calcium into long, fibers that can stretch. If, however, casein has been attacked extensively by enzymes, then the pieces are too small to form fibers, as is the case with well aged cheeses. These do not get stringy. The degree of cross linking is such that casein molecules are tightly bound. The molecules just break.
Stringiness, can be determined by how the cheese was made. Stringy cheeses are moderate in acidity, moisture, salt, and age. They are intentionally made fibrous, as is the case with mozzarella, Emmental, and Cheddar. Crumbly cheeses include Cheshire and Leicester. Caefphilly, Colby, and Jack are preferred for melted preparations. Gruyère is the choice for fondues. Italian grating cheeses, such as Parmesan, grana Padano, and pecorinos have a broken protein fabric which makes them ideal to be disperced in dishes.
When preparing cheese sauces and soups, the aim is to integrate the cheese evenly in the liquid to add richness and flavor to the dish. To avoid stringiness, lumps, and fat separation consider the following tips:
- Avoid using cheese prone to stringiness in the first place. Moist or well-aged grating cheeses blend better.
- Grate cheese finely.
- Heat the dish as little as possible after the cheese has been added. Simmer the ingredients first, cool a bit, then add the cheese.
- Minimize stirring as it can push disperesed particles together.
- Include starchy ingredients that coat proteins and fat pockets, keeping them apart. Use stablizing ingredients such as flour, cornstarch, or arrowroot.
- If the flavor permits, use wine or lemon juice.
Cheese fondue
The ingredients for fondue include an alpine cheese such as Gruyère, a tart white wine, some kirsch, and sometimes starch (for added insurance). The wine contributes water, which keeps the casein proteins moist and dilute, and tartaric acid, which pulls off the calcium and leaves casein glueless and separate. Citric acid from a lemon juice does the same thing.
When using cheese as a topping or gratin, keep in mind that too much heat dehydrates the casein fabric, toughens it, and causes the fat to separate. To avoid this, watch the dish carefully when under the broiler or in the oven, and remove as soon as the cheese melts. If you want to brown a cheese topping, pick a robust cheese such as a grating cheese.
Choosing, storing, and serving cheese
The most important thing to understand is that bulk supermarket cheeses are pale imitations to real, flavorful cheeses. To find good cheeses, buy it from a specialist. Whenever possible, buy portions that are cut to order, as precut portions may be old and their large exposed surfaces develop rancid flavors from contact with air and plastic wrap. Exposure to light also damages lipids, causes off-flavors, and bleaches the annatto in orange-dyed cheeses, turning it pink. Pregrated cheese has tremendous surface area so it looses much of its aroma and carbon dioxide, factors which contribute to the impression of staleness.
Cheese is best stored cool, not cold. It is best kept at 55-60°F/12-15° C; a temperature that extenuates the ripening conditions. It is warmer than the fridge, but cooler than ambient temperatures. The shelf life of cheese is affected by its water content. Fresh cheese with 80% water lasts a few days. Soft cheese, at 45-55% moisture, reaches its prime after a few weeks, semihard cheese at 40-45% after a few months, and hard cheese at 30-40% moisture after a year or more.
Choose loose wrapping to preserve cheese at its best. Tight wrapping in plastic traps moisture. The restricted oxygen encourages spoilage bacterial and fungal growth. Strong volatiles like ammonia also become trapped and impregnate the cheese instead of difusing out. Whole still developing cheese should be stored unwrapped or loosely wrapped in wax paper. If a piece of cheese develops an unusual surface mold or sliminess or an unusual odor, discard it. Trimming the surface does not remove mold filaments deep in the cheese which may carry toxins and lead to food poisoning.
Cheeses should never be served direct from the refrigerator. At such low temps, milk fat is congealed and hard, the protein network is stiff, and the cheese tastes rubbery and flavorless. Cheese is best served at room temperature unless it is warmer than 80°F/26° C, at which the milk fat metls and sweats out of the cheese.
People often wonder whether the rind of certain cheeses is to be consumed. The rinds of long-aged cheeses are tough and slightly rancid, so avoid eating them. Softer cheeses have rinds that may be eaten, but doing so is a matter of taste and preference.
Cheese is best stored cool, not cold. It is best kept at 55-60°F/12-15° C; a temperature that extenuates the ripening conditions. It is warmer than the fridge, but cooler than ambient temperatures. The shelf life of cheese is affected by its water content. Fresh cheese with 80% water lasts a few days. Soft cheese, at 45-55% moisture, reaches its prime after a few weeks, semihard cheese at 40-45% after a few months, and hard cheese at 30-40% moisture after a year or more.
Choose loose wrapping to preserve cheese at its best. Tight wrapping in plastic traps moisture. The restricted oxygen encourages spoilage bacterial and fungal growth. Strong volatiles like ammonia also become trapped and impregnate the cheese instead of difusing out. Whole still developing cheese should be stored unwrapped or loosely wrapped in wax paper. If a piece of cheese develops an unusual surface mold or sliminess or an unusual odor, discard it. Trimming the surface does not remove mold filaments deep in the cheese which may carry toxins and lead to food poisoning.
Cheeses should never be served direct from the refrigerator. At such low temps, milk fat is congealed and hard, the protein network is stiff, and the cheese tastes rubbery and flavorless. Cheese is best served at room temperature unless it is warmer than 80°F/26° C, at which the milk fat metls and sweats out of the cheese.
People often wonder whether the rind of certain cheeses is to be consumed. The rinds of long-aged cheeses are tough and slightly rancid, so avoid eating them. Softer cheeses have rinds that may be eaten, but doing so is a matter of taste and preference.
Sunday, May 27, 2012
Making cheese
The artful transformation of milk into cheese occurs in three stages: In the first stage, lactic acid bacteria convert milk sugar into lactic acid. The second stage involves the addition of rennet and the subsequent curdling of the casein proteins and drainage of the watery whey from the concentrated curds. The third stage is ripening. Protein and fat-digesting enzymes present in the milk, from the bacteria and molds, and from the rennet work together to create the unique texture and flavor of the cheese.
Nearly all cheeses are curdled with a combination of starter bacteria acid and rennet. Acid and rennet give different curdle structures. Acid yields a fine, fragile gel; whereas rennet produces a course but robust, rubbery one. Fresh cheeses and small, surface-ripened goat cheeses begin with predominantly acid coagulation. Large semihard and hard cheeses curdle in rennet-dominant coagulation. Cheeses of moderate size and moisture have moderate content of both.
After curdling, the excess water is drained from the curds. For soft cheeses, whole curd is allowed to drain by gravity alone for many hours. The curd of future firmer cheeses is precut to increase surface area and is actively pressed to expel more moisture. Cut curd may also be cooked in its whey to 130° F/55° C to further expel whey and encourage flavor production by bacteria and enzymes. All cheese is later placed into molds and pressed to its final shape and moisture.
Salt is added to new cheese either by mixing it with the curds or applying dry salt or brine to the whole cheese. In addition to taste, salt inhibits the growth of spoilage microbes and acts as a regulator of cheese structure and the ripening process. Salt draws moisture out of the curds and firms the protein structure. Most cheeses contain 1.5 to 2% salt by weight.
Ripening, or affinage, refers to the process of bringing cheese to the point at which flavor and texture are at their best. Cheeses are said to be alive. They begin young and bland, mature into fullness of character, and eventually decay into harshness and coarseness. The length of vitality depends on the type of cheese. The cheesemaker manipulates the maturation process by controlling the temperature and humidity. Specialist cheese merchants in France are also affineurs; they buy freshly made cheese and carefully mature it in their own premises to sell at their best. Industrial producers ripen their cheeses only partly, then refrigerate them to suspend their development before shipping. This technique maximizes shelf life and stability though quality suffers greatly.
Nearly all cheeses are curdled with a combination of starter bacteria acid and rennet. Acid and rennet give different curdle structures. Acid yields a fine, fragile gel; whereas rennet produces a course but robust, rubbery one. Fresh cheeses and small, surface-ripened goat cheeses begin with predominantly acid coagulation. Large semihard and hard cheeses curdle in rennet-dominant coagulation. Cheeses of moderate size and moisture have moderate content of both.
After curdling, the excess water is drained from the curds. For soft cheeses, whole curd is allowed to drain by gravity alone for many hours. The curd of future firmer cheeses is precut to increase surface area and is actively pressed to expel more moisture. Cut curd may also be cooked in its whey to 130° F/55° C to further expel whey and encourage flavor production by bacteria and enzymes. All cheese is later placed into molds and pressed to its final shape and moisture.
Salt is added to new cheese either by mixing it with the curds or applying dry salt or brine to the whole cheese. In addition to taste, salt inhibits the growth of spoilage microbes and acts as a regulator of cheese structure and the ripening process. Salt draws moisture out of the curds and firms the protein structure. Most cheeses contain 1.5 to 2% salt by weight.
Ripening, or affinage, refers to the process of bringing cheese to the point at which flavor and texture are at their best. Cheeses are said to be alive. They begin young and bland, mature into fullness of character, and eventually decay into harshness and coarseness. The length of vitality depends on the type of cheese. The cheesemaker manipulates the maturation process by controlling the temperature and humidity. Specialist cheese merchants in France are also affineurs; they buy freshly made cheese and carefully mature it in their own premises to sell at their best. Industrial producers ripen their cheeses only partly, then refrigerate them to suspend their development before shipping. This technique maximizes shelf life and stability though quality suffers greatly.
The ingredients of cheese
Milk
Cheese is concentrated milk five- to tenfold by the removal of water. The basic character of the milk defines the basic character of the cheese. Milk from cows is more neutral than others. Sheep and buffalo milk have relatively high fat and protein contents therefore make richer cheeses. Goat's milk has less casein protein, so it produces a more crumbly curd.
The cow breed also produces distinct flavors. Today most dairy comes from black and white Holstein or Friesian cows. These cows have been bred to maximize milk yields on a standarized feed. Traditional breeds, such as the Brown Swiss and others, produce a lower volume of milk but one that is richer in protein, fat, and other favorable cheese constituents.
The animal's diet also affects flavor. Today most cows are fed on a standarized diet year round. The diet is composed of silage and hay from few fodder corps such as alfalfa or maize. This feed produces neutral milk that can be made into very good cheese. However, herds allowed to graze on pastures give milk with aromatic complexities that make extraordinary cheese. Pasture cheese has traces of local climate and seasonal flavors. It is also deeper yellow color due to greater carotenoid pigments in fresh vegetation. Beware of bright orange cheeses as these have been artificially dyed.
Flavor is also affected by whether the milk used is raw or pasteurized. Pasteurization, to eliminate disease and spoilage bacteria, has been a practical necessity in industrial cheese making, which requires milk to be pooled and stored. Since 1940s, the FDA requires that any cheese made from unpasteurized milk be aged at least 60 days at a temperature above 35 degrees F/2 degrees C. In the 1950s the US also banned imports of raw-milk cheeses aged less than 60 days. This essentially means that soft cheeses made with raw milk are contraband. The French, Swiss, and Italian regulations actually forbid the use of pasteurized milk for the traditional production of cheeses such as Brie, Camembert, Comté, Emmental, Gruyère, and Parmesan. Pasteurization kills useful milk bacteria, and inactivates enzymes in the milk that work on flavor development. However, pasteurization is no guarantee of safety as milk and cheese can be contaminated in later processing. Most outbreaks in recent years have involved pasteurized products.
Rennet
At least 2,500 years ago, shepherds began using pieces of the first stomach of a young calf, lamb, or goat to curdle milk for cheese. Later, people made a brine extract from the stomach. This was, conceivably, the first semipurified enzyme. Modern methods allow for the production of that same enzyme, chymosin, to be produced in a bacterium, a mold, and a yeast. Most cheese today uses this engineered "vegetable rennets." In Europe, rennet from a calf stomach is required for traditional cheese making.
Traditional rennet is made from the fourth stomach or abomasum of a milk-fed calf less than 30 days old, before chymosin is replaced by other protein-digesting enzymes. Chymosin is unlike other enzymes because it attacks only one milk protein at just one point. It targets the negatively charged kappa-casein that repels individual casein particles from each other. Thus, chymosin allows the casein particles to bond and form a continuous solid gel which is better known as the curd.
Acidity alone reduces the zeta potential and causes milk to curdle, so why rennet? Acid disperses casein proteins and their calcium glue before it allows the proteins to come together. Some casein and most of the calcium are lost in the whey. In addition, the acidity required to curdle milk is so high that some of the flavor-producing enzymes work very slowly or not at all. The curd produced is weak and brittle. By contrast, rennet leaves the casein micelle proteins intact and causes them to bond into a firm, elastic curd.
Microbes
A handful of modern cheese is made with purified cultures, but mostly it is made using a portion of the previous batch's starter.
Starter bacteria consists of lactic acid bacteria which initially acidify the milk, persist in the drained curd, and generate much of the flavor during the ripening process of semihard and hard cheeses such as Cheddar, Gouda, and Parmesan. The numbers of starter bacteria drop dramatically during cheesemaking, but their enzymes continue to work for months. There are two broad groups of starters: Lactococci (mesophilic) and Lactobacilli and Streptococci (thermophilic). Most cheeses are acidified by the mesophilic group, while the few that undergo a cooking step, such as mozzarella and the Italian hard cheeses, are acidified by the thermophilic group.
In addition, there are other microbes that give some cheeses their characteristic looks and flavors:
Cheese is concentrated milk five- to tenfold by the removal of water. The basic character of the milk defines the basic character of the cheese. Milk from cows is more neutral than others. Sheep and buffalo milk have relatively high fat and protein contents therefore make richer cheeses. Goat's milk has less casein protein, so it produces a more crumbly curd.
The cow breed also produces distinct flavors. Today most dairy comes from black and white Holstein or Friesian cows. These cows have been bred to maximize milk yields on a standarized feed. Traditional breeds, such as the Brown Swiss and others, produce a lower volume of milk but one that is richer in protein, fat, and other favorable cheese constituents.
The animal's diet also affects flavor. Today most cows are fed on a standarized diet year round. The diet is composed of silage and hay from few fodder corps such as alfalfa or maize. This feed produces neutral milk that can be made into very good cheese. However, herds allowed to graze on pastures give milk with aromatic complexities that make extraordinary cheese. Pasture cheese has traces of local climate and seasonal flavors. It is also deeper yellow color due to greater carotenoid pigments in fresh vegetation. Beware of bright orange cheeses as these have been artificially dyed.
Flavor is also affected by whether the milk used is raw or pasteurized. Pasteurization, to eliminate disease and spoilage bacteria, has been a practical necessity in industrial cheese making, which requires milk to be pooled and stored. Since 1940s, the FDA requires that any cheese made from unpasteurized milk be aged at least 60 days at a temperature above 35 degrees F/2 degrees C. In the 1950s the US also banned imports of raw-milk cheeses aged less than 60 days. This essentially means that soft cheeses made with raw milk are contraband. The French, Swiss, and Italian regulations actually forbid the use of pasteurized milk for the traditional production of cheeses such as Brie, Camembert, Comté, Emmental, Gruyère, and Parmesan. Pasteurization kills useful milk bacteria, and inactivates enzymes in the milk that work on flavor development. However, pasteurization is no guarantee of safety as milk and cheese can be contaminated in later processing. Most outbreaks in recent years have involved pasteurized products.
Rennet
At least 2,500 years ago, shepherds began using pieces of the first stomach of a young calf, lamb, or goat to curdle milk for cheese. Later, people made a brine extract from the stomach. This was, conceivably, the first semipurified enzyme. Modern methods allow for the production of that same enzyme, chymosin, to be produced in a bacterium, a mold, and a yeast. Most cheese today uses this engineered "vegetable rennets." In Europe, rennet from a calf stomach is required for traditional cheese making.
Traditional rennet is made from the fourth stomach or abomasum of a milk-fed calf less than 30 days old, before chymosin is replaced by other protein-digesting enzymes. Chymosin is unlike other enzymes because it attacks only one milk protein at just one point. It targets the negatively charged kappa-casein that repels individual casein particles from each other. Thus, chymosin allows the casein particles to bond and form a continuous solid gel which is better known as the curd.
Acidity alone reduces the zeta potential and causes milk to curdle, so why rennet? Acid disperses casein proteins and their calcium glue before it allows the proteins to come together. Some casein and most of the calcium are lost in the whey. In addition, the acidity required to curdle milk is so high that some of the flavor-producing enzymes work very slowly or not at all. The curd produced is weak and brittle. By contrast, rennet leaves the casein micelle proteins intact and causes them to bond into a firm, elastic curd.
Microbes
A handful of modern cheese is made with purified cultures, but mostly it is made using a portion of the previous batch's starter.
Starter bacteria consists of lactic acid bacteria which initially acidify the milk, persist in the drained curd, and generate much of the flavor during the ripening process of semihard and hard cheeses such as Cheddar, Gouda, and Parmesan. The numbers of starter bacteria drop dramatically during cheesemaking, but their enzymes continue to work for months. There are two broad groups of starters: Lactococci (mesophilic) and Lactobacilli and Streptococci (thermophilic). Most cheeses are acidified by the mesophilic group, while the few that undergo a cooking step, such as mozzarella and the Italian hard cheeses, are acidified by the thermophilic group.
In addition, there are other microbes that give some cheeses their characteristic looks and flavors:
- The Propionibacteria- Propionibacter shermanii is the hole maker, important in Swiss starters. It produces carbon dioxide gas that makes up the holes in cheese.
- The Smear Bacteria-Brevibacterium linens gives some strong cheeses their characteristic stink, such as Münster, Epoisses, Limburger.
- Molds, especially Penicillium, require oxygen to grow, can tolerate drier conditions than bacteria, and produce powerful protein- and fat-digesting enzymes that improve the texture and flavor of certain cheeses.
- Blue molds include Penicillium roqueforti, which gives Roquefort cheese its veins of blue; and P. glaucum, which colors the interior of Stilton and Gorgonzola.
- White molds include P. camemberti, which contributes to the creamy texture of Camembert, Brie, and Neufchâtel.
History of cheese
Cheesemaking dates back 5,000 years. It is believed to have originated from warm central Asia and the Middle East, as people learned to preserve naturally curdled milk by draining off the watery whey and salting the concentrated curds. There is physical evidence of cheesemaking in Egyptian pots dating to 2300 BCE.
Eventually, the custom moved West and North into Europe. In those cooler regions, people produced many variations of curds that resulted from milder treatments and time. The cheese became alive with different microorganisms. The ancient Columella notes cheese making practices in Europe in his Rei rusticae ("On Rustic Matters") about 65 CE. By the Middle Ages, cheesemaking techniques developed independently in the large feudal estates and monasteries. They suited local conditions and markets. Small, soft cheeses were mostly eaten locally. Large hard cheeses required milk from many animals so cooperatives developed. Gruyère fruiteries began around 1200 CE. Hard cheese was transported long distances and kept indefinitely. The independent producers resulted in a wide variety of cheese. By the 18th century, cheese was considered a stape food, "white meat" for the poor and an integral course in a multicourse feasts for the rich. The golden age of cheese was probably in the late 19th century to the early 20th century when the art was fully matured and railroad transportation made cheese widely available still at its best.
Sadly, industrialization and war brought the demise of traditional cheesemaking. Cheese and butter factories were born in the US, a country with no cheesemaking tradition. By the end of the Civil War there were hundreds of "associated dairies" that manufactured cheese for many farms. Pharmacies, and later pharmaceutical companies, began mass-producing rennet. At the turn of the century, scientists in Denmark, the US, and France standarized cheese making by introducing pure microbial cultures for curdling and ripening cheese. Cheesemaking no longer benefited from the complex flora found in individual farms. According to Harold McGee, in On Food and Cooking, "the crowning blow to cheese diversity and quality was World War II" (p. 54). Dairying in continental Europe was devastated. In the prolongued recovery, factory production of cheese was favored for its economies of scale and regulation. Cheese became inexpensive and standarized. Since then, most of the cheese in Europe and the US is factory made. In 1973, France instituted a certification program for cheese made by traditional methods. Still, less than 20% of French cheese today qualifies for that certification. In the US, most of the market is flooded with factory "process" cheese, made from a mixture of aged and fresh cheeses blended with emulsifiers and repasteurized. "Natural" cheese, though still almost exclusively factory-made, is not as widely consumed.
In the 21st century, cheese consumption is at its highest world wide. However, it has become an industrial product with little resemblance to the age-old art. McGee expresses that "industrial cheese is...a simplified food that could be and is made anywhere, and that tastes of nowhere in particular" (On Food and Cooking, p.54).
In the recent years, there has been a revival of tradition and quality. In the US, artisan cheese is starting to claim a small portion of the market share. What once was considered white meat for the poor, now is a pricey treat for the urban middle class.
Eventually, the custom moved West and North into Europe. In those cooler regions, people produced many variations of curds that resulted from milder treatments and time. The cheese became alive with different microorganisms. The ancient Columella notes cheese making practices in Europe in his Rei rusticae ("On Rustic Matters") about 65 CE. By the Middle Ages, cheesemaking techniques developed independently in the large feudal estates and monasteries. They suited local conditions and markets. Small, soft cheeses were mostly eaten locally. Large hard cheeses required milk from many animals so cooperatives developed. Gruyère fruiteries began around 1200 CE. Hard cheese was transported long distances and kept indefinitely. The independent producers resulted in a wide variety of cheese. By the 18th century, cheese was considered a stape food, "white meat" for the poor and an integral course in a multicourse feasts for the rich. The golden age of cheese was probably in the late 19th century to the early 20th century when the art was fully matured and railroad transportation made cheese widely available still at its best.
Sadly, industrialization and war brought the demise of traditional cheesemaking. Cheese and butter factories were born in the US, a country with no cheesemaking tradition. By the end of the Civil War there were hundreds of "associated dairies" that manufactured cheese for many farms. Pharmacies, and later pharmaceutical companies, began mass-producing rennet. At the turn of the century, scientists in Denmark, the US, and France standarized cheese making by introducing pure microbial cultures for curdling and ripening cheese. Cheesemaking no longer benefited from the complex flora found in individual farms. According to Harold McGee, in On Food and Cooking, "the crowning blow to cheese diversity and quality was World War II" (p. 54). Dairying in continental Europe was devastated. In the prolongued recovery, factory production of cheese was favored for its economies of scale and regulation. Cheese became inexpensive and standarized. Since then, most of the cheese in Europe and the US is factory made. In 1973, France instituted a certification program for cheese made by traditional methods. Still, less than 20% of French cheese today qualifies for that certification. In the US, most of the market is flooded with factory "process" cheese, made from a mixture of aged and fresh cheeses blended with emulsifiers and repasteurized. "Natural" cheese, though still almost exclusively factory-made, is not as widely consumed.
In the 21st century, cheese consumption is at its highest world wide. However, it has become an industrial product with little resemblance to the age-old art. McGee expresses that "industrial cheese is...a simplified food that could be and is made anywhere, and that tastes of nowhere in particular" (On Food and Cooking, p.54).
In the recent years, there has been a revival of tradition and quality. In the US, artisan cheese is starting to claim a small portion of the market share. What once was considered white meat for the poor, now is a pricey treat for the urban middle class.
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