Thoughts on Scottish Raisin Scones

Usually I write these notes prior to the experimentation, but this time I have some after thoughts instead:

1. The pH of water markedly affects the flavor of the tea. I truly recommend acidifying the water if you use tap water. With the right pH, one can truly appreciate the depth of flavors.

2. There is a vast amount of research performed on benefits/effects of caffeine, tea, and coffee. It is too great to mention here. Some findings are controversial. It raises questions about the specific compounds that are harmful (i.e. addictive stimulants) in comparison to the beneficial ones (i.e. antioxidants.) Research further if interested.

3. When making biscuits/scones, the dough stiffens rather quickly. Knead just enough to shape dough, but beware of overdeveloping the gluten.

Another scone recipe - Coffeehouse Scones

This is a tested recipe given to me by a friend.

From: http://www.joyofbaking.com/SconesCoffeehouse.html

Ingredients:

• 2 cups (260 grams) all-purpose flour
• 1/4 cup (50 grams) granulated white sugar
• 1 teaspoon baking powder
• 1/2 teaspoon baking soda
• 1/4 teaspoon salt
• 1/2 cup (113 grams) unsalted butter, cold and cut into pieces
• 2/3 - 3/4 cup (160-80 ml) buttermilk
• 1 teaspoon vanilla extract (optional)

Directions:

• Preheat oven to 400 degrees F (200 degrees C) and place oven rack in middle of oven. Line a baking sheet with parchment paper.
• In a large bowl, whisk together the flour, sugar, baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Cut the butter into small pieces and blend into the flour mixture with a pastry blender or two knives. The mixture should look like coarse crumbs.
• Add the buttermilk and vanilla extract to the flour mixture and stir just until the dough comes together. Do not overmix.
• Transfer the dough to a lightly floured surface and knead gently. Form into a 7 in (18 cm) round that is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick. Use a 2 1/2 inch (6.5 cm) round biscuit cutter to cut the dough into circles.
• Transfer the scones to the baking sheet and brush the tops with a little milk.
• Bake for 18-20 minutes or until golden brown and a toothpick inserted in the middle comes out clean.
• Remove from oven and transfer to a wire rack to cool.
• Can be stored at room temperature for a few days.
• Makes ten 2 1/2 inch (6.5 cm) or 8 wedge-shaped scones.

Scottish Raisin Scones Recipe

From Ontario Milk Board Calendar, 1980s, as posted in: http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/special-programs/sp-287-kitchen-chemistry-spring-2009/readings/MITSP_287s09_read06_Scones.pdf

Ingredients:

• 1 tbsp vinegar
• 1 cup milk
• 4-6 cups unsifted flour
• 3 tbsp sugar
• 1 tsp salt
• 1/2 tsp baking soda
• 1/3 cup butter
• 1/2 cup seedless raisins (see note below)
• 1 egg yolk
• sugar for sprinkling

Method:

• Preheat oven to 450 degrees F.
• Stir vinegar into milk, set aside.
• Combine 4 cups flour, sugar, salt, and baking soda in a bowl. Mix well.
• Cut in shortening until mixture resembles coarse crumbs.
• Stir in raisins.
• Add milk mixture to dry ingredients at once and stir with a fork until all ingredients are moisted.
• Add additional flour if mixture is too moist (i.e. you are not able to knead it easily).
• Turn out on a lightly floured board and knead gently about 20 times.
• Make large balls of dough (about the size of small muffins).
• Brush with egg yolk and sprinkle sugar on top.
• Bake in preheated oven at 450 degrees F for 12-15 min or until done.

Note:

If you don't like raisins, you can add chocolate chips, dried cranberries, almonds, or strawberries.

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Footnote: When I tried this recipe, the dough was incredibly dry. I added some more liquid to make them work. These scones are not as sweet as I expected. They were okay, but I was a bit disappointed with the recipe.

Other types of coffee

Expresso is made by forcing water through the grounds with high pressure. Through this process, a higher percentage of the beans oil is extracted, which emulsifies into the brew and gives the drink a velvety texture. The concentration of coffee is three or four times greater in expresso than on unpressurized brews. Expresso also forms a characteristic foam, called the crema, which is the product of carbon dioxide gas and the mixture of dissolved and suspended carbohydrates, proteins, phenolic materials, and pigment aggregates.

Decaffeinated coffee was invented in Germany in 1908. It is made by soaking the green coffee beans in water to dissolve the caffeine, then extracting the caffeine with a solvent, and steaming the beans to evaporate any remaining caffeine. Ordinary coffee contains 60-180 mg of caffeine per cup. Decaff contains 2-5 mg.

Instant coffee is essentially a dry concentrate. It is made by boiling ground coffee in duplicate to obtain maximum extraction of pigments and carbohydrates. Later it is dehydrated and supplemented with aromas. It is used in baking, confections, and ice cream.

Brewing and drinking coffee

There are many different methods for brewing coffee. Most methods extract between 20 - 25% of the coffee substance. Standard American filter-drip coffee is the lightest, making a proportion of 1:15 coffee to water. Italian expresso is the strongest at a 1:5 ratio. Brewing coffee is an art, as the results depend on type of drip, temperature, and length of time.

Coffee tastes the best when freshly brewed and consumed. The ideal temperature for sipping is 140 degrees F. It loses aroma and flavor in less than an hour in the pot. It is best to keep hot coffee within its original heat in a preheated, insulated, closed container than on a hot plate, as excessive heat speeds the escape of aroma and flavor.

Making coffee

Coffee beans are prepared in the following manner:

First, the ripe berries of the coffee tree are picked and the seeds cleaned by one of two methods. In the dry method, berries are exposed to the sun to dry and ferment, then the fruit is mechanically removed. In the wet method, most of the pulp is rubbed off by machine, and the remainder is liquified by fermenting microbes. Then, the seeds are washed and dried to 10% moisture. The parchment shell is removed, sugars and minerals are leached out, and finally the beans are roasted.

Raw green coffee beans are hard. Roasting transforms them into fragile pockets of flavor. Coffee beans are roasted for 15 minutes or less at temperatures between 375 to 425 degrees F. As the temperature approaches the boiling point of water, the moisture inside the beans turns into steam and puff up the bean (similar to popped corn). At the higher temperatures, proteins, sugars, and phenolic materials break and react with each other in typical Maillard (browning) reactions. The roasted aroma, dark pigment, and flavor develop. At 320 degrees F, the Maillard reactions become self sustaining. The molecular breakdown gnerates more water vapor and carbon dioxide gas. If roasting continues, oil escapes the damaged cells and provides a visible gloss to the surface of the beans. Medium roasts give the fullest brews. The darker beans tend to be more bitter from resulting browning reactions. Once the desired roasting is achieved, the beans are cooled off rapidly.

Coffee keeps reasonably well for a couple of weeks at room temperature and a couple of months in the freezer. Once the beans are ground, the shelf life is only a few days at room temperature.

The key to grinding coffee is to obtain a standard particle size. Too large of a particle makes it hard to control the extraction. Too small particles have a larger surface area that comes in contact with the water, which often leads to overextraction and a bitter flavor. Grinders that allow small pieces to escape before getting too small give more consistent particle sizes and better brews.

Coffee

Coffee trees are native to Africa. They produce a red berry that contains two large seeds or "beans." The history of roasted coffee dates back to the 14th century Arab nations. From then, the coffee tree was taken to India in the 1600s, after which it was taken to Java and then to the French Caribbean. Today Brazil, Vietnam, and Colombia are the largest exporters of coffee.

There are two main trees that produce coffee beans: Coffea arabica, native to the Sudan, produces "arabica" beans; and Coffea canephora, native to West Africa, produces "robusta" beans. About 2/3 of the beans in the international trade are arabica beans. They develop a more complex and balanced flavor than robustas. They also contain less caffeine, less phenolic material, and more oil and sugar. Robustas are only popular because the trees themselves are more disease resistant.

Brewing tea

The quality of brewed tea and coffee is highly influenced by the water used to make them. Very hard water can slow flavor extraction, whereas soft water overextracts flavor and tends to have a salty flavor. Distilled water makes flat brews. The ideal water has moderate mineral content and a neutral pH. The final brew has an acidic pH around 5 that supports and balances flavors the best.

Many cities intentionally alkalinize water to reduce pipe corrosion. Alkalinity reduces the quality of flavor of both tea and coffe. Alkaline brews tend to produce red infusions from both, black and green, tea. Alkaline tap water can be corrected by adding tiny pinches of cream of tartar until it just begins to have a slightly tart taste.

Teas are brewed in various ways depending on the type of tea and the regional preference of the brewer. In the West, a small amount of tea is brewed once for several minutes, then discarded. In Asia, a greater quantity of tea leaves is used per ounces of liquid. It is rinsed with hot water and then infused several times. The temperature of water also varies. For black and oolong teas, use water close to boil, and infuse briefly. Green tea is infused longer and at lower temperatures, around 110-160 degrees F/45-70 degrees C. This limits too much extraction of the bitter phenolics and minimizes damage to the chlorophyll pigment.

The typical 5 minute brew of black tea extracts almost all of the caffeine present.

Once tea is properly brewed, it should be separated from the leaves to stop further extraction. Tea is best when drunk fresh. With time the aroma dissipates and phenolic compounds react with oxygen and each other, causing a change in color and taste.

If milk is to accompany the tea, it is best to add hot tea to warm milk to prevent the milk from curddling. The taste of tea with milk is milder because phenolic compounds bind to milk proteins and render them unable to bind to salivary proteins in the mouth.

Lemon juice is sometimes added to tea. The acidity of the lemon alters the structure of red phenolic complexes in black tea so it lightens the brew.

Tea styles

Though there are many styles of tea, the following three account for most of the world consumption:

Green tea preserves some of the original qualities of the fresh leaf. It is made by cooking fresh or briefly withered leaves to inactivate their enzymes, then pressing them to release moisture, and finally drying them via hot air or a hot pan. "Pan firing" gives tea a characteristic aroma of roasted foods. In Japan, the leaves are steamed, so they have a more grassy flavor and green color.

Oolong tea is made by allowing modest enzyme transformation. The leaves are significantly withered, then lightly agitated and bruised. Enzymatic action occurs during the subsequent rest period, usually a few hours long. Once the bruised edges turn red, the leaves are pan-fired at high temperatures. The tea is rolled and dried at moderate temperatures, which gives it a light amber color and fruitful aroma.

Black tea undergoes profound enzymatic transformation. The leaves are withered for hours, rolled repeatedly, and air-dried at around 100 degrees Celsius. The tea develops a deep, dark color.

Other teas tend to be variations or additions to one of the above mentioned styles. For example, white tea is a version of Chinese green tea made almost exclusively from buds that are steamed and dried. Scented teas tend to be Chinese teas held for 8-12 hrs in containers with flowers such as jasmine, cassia bud, rose, orchid, and gardenia. They may include 1-2% flower petals. Other teas vary in the type of heat they receive, such as wood fires, or high temperature roasting.

Herbal tea, also known as herbal tisane, is made from ingredients other than the Camellia sinensis plant. There are three main categories: rooibos tea is primarily made from the South African red bush; mate tea is made from the South American Yerba Mate plant; and finally, herbal infusions are made from spices, fruits, flowers, or a variety of other plants.

Iced tea, the most popular form of tea in the US, is made from any kind of tea that is brewed and cooled. Black tea is most commonly brewed for iced tea. It was introduced by Richard Blechynden, a tea plantation owner who, in an attempt to promote his tea during the summer time, threw ice cubes in the mix and had people sample it during the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis. Rapid cooling from ice makes the brewed black tea cloudy as caffeine and theaflavin compounds complex and precipitate out. To avoid this, brew the tea at room temperature or colder over several hours. The long process extracts less caffeine and theaflavin, so when chilled, they do not complex and the liquid remains clear. Iced tea is often sweetened or flavored.

Making tea - an enzymatic transformation

The fresh tea leaf has a bitter and astringent taste due to the abundant phenolic substances present. Aromatic molecules are locked up in nonvolatile compounds with sugar. The key to making tea is encouraging the leaf's own enzymes to transform these austeric molecules into pleasant ones.

The best tea is made from a plant's young shoots and unopened leaf buds as they contain the highest concentration of phenolic compounds and related enzymes. These young leaves are harvested and allowed to wither. Withering causes a shift in their metabolism that accounts for a change in flavor and physical fragility. The fragile leaves are rolled or pressed to break down tissue structures that contain cell fluids. Enzymes spill, react with oxygen, and break the aroma-sugar complexes apart. Simple phenolic compounds such as catechin react into larger compounds. The browning enzyme, polyphenoloxidase, uses oxygen to join small phenolic molecules into large complexes that are brown and not astringent at all. The deep, complex of tea is developed by this enzymatic transformation, often referred to as "fermentation," even though no significant  microbial activity is involved.

Once the desired flavor is developed, the leaves are heated to inactive their enzymes. Furthermore, dry heat is used to develop different depths of flavor and to preserve leaves for long keeping. The dry leaves are sieved and graded, and prepared for packaging and consumption.

Brief history of tea

The word "tea" comes from the Chinese word "cha" which refers to a drink prepared from the green leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. The history of tea in China dates back more than 2,000 years. It became a staple of the Chinese diet around 1000 CE. By the 17th century, China began trading with Europe and Russia. Tea took a particular stronghold in England, where consumption rose from 20,000 pounds in 1700 to over 20 million pounds in 1800.

Until the 19th century, all the tea in the world trade was Chinese green tea. In the 1840s, the Chinese developed "black" tea by intensive pressing of the leaves. Black tea is the type most common in the West today.

Around the same time, China began to resist the British practice of paying for tea with opium. Britain in return intensified its tea production in British colonies, particularly in India. The warm regions were better suited for Assam tea, which has more phenolic compounds and caffeine than Chinese tea and produces a stronger, darker black tea. Today, three quarters of tea produced is black. India is the world's largest producer.  China and Japan still consume more green tea than black.

Quickbreads

Quickbreads are named so for two reasons: they are quick to prepare and are best if eaten shortly after baked. These breads stale quickly.

There are regional differences for quickbreads such as biscuits and scones.

The term "biscuit" originated from French, and it refered to goods that were baked until dry and hard. Biscotti, though of Italian origin, is an excellent representation of the original meaning of a biscuit. It is made from a lean dough leavened with baking powder, baked, cut crosswise into thin pieces, and rebaked to dry at low temperature. Modern French and English biscuits refer to long-keeping sweets or cookies.

American biscuits are entirely different. In the US, biscuits contain no sugar, and often no eggs. They are made from a moist dough of milk or buttermilk, flour, fat (butter), and baking soda. Minimally handled, the dough is briefly baked into a soft bread.

The term "scone" is just as ambigous. Originally scones come from Scottland. Scottish and English scones are similar to American biscuits. Both are flaky and moist, except that scones are sweeter and often incorporate dried fruit. Different areas of the US have their own versions of scones.

Scones are usually accompanied by tea or coffee.

Lesson 4: Scottish Raisin Scones

This week the topics include:

Quick bread - scones
Tea
Coffee

It should be short and sweet. Hope you join me!